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Jewish tradition uses several Hebrew words for people and nations outside the Jewish people. The best-known word is goy. Others are nochri, arel, Kuti, ger toshav, ger e chasidei umot olam.

These words are not synonyms. Each one has its own meaning and belongs to its own biblical, historical or halachic context. So it is important to look at the original meaning of each word and at the context where it is used.

Goy – A Nation or People

La parola ebraica goy means “nation” or “people”. Originally it is not negative.

In Genesis, G-d says to Abraham:

“I will make you a great goy.” (Genesis 12:2) [1]

Here goy means the people that will come from Abraham.

The people of Israel are also called a goy in Deuteronomy:

“For what great goy is there that has a G-d so near to it as the L-rd our G-d is whenever we call upon Him? And what great goy is there that has statutes and judgments as righteous as all this Torah that I am setting before you today?” (Deuteronomy 4:7–8) [2]

COSÌ goy does not mean “bad”, “heathen” or “non-Jew” in itself. In some modern situations the word does sound negative. It is important to separate the original meaning from the feeling the word got later, in certain historical and social circumstances.

Goy in the Mishnah and Talmud

La parola goy is also common in rabbinic writings.

For example, Mishnah Avodah Zarah 1:1 gives rules about doing business with goyim in the days before their festivals. [3] Rashi explains that the reason is that a non-Jew might thank his idol because of the business deal. [4]

There are also discussions about medical treatment and physical contact with non-Jews (Mishnah Avodah Zarah 2:2, with Rashi’s explanation). [5] About cutting hair, the Mishnah makes a difference between what is allowed in public and what is forbidden in private. The explanation attributed to Rashi points to the danger of a razor near a person’s throat. [6]

These texts must be read in the world in which they were written. That world was very different from ours in religious relations, personal safety, law enforcement and social structure.

How Did Goy Get a Negative Meaning?

The original meaning of goy is not negative, but today the word can sound negative in daily speech.

One explanation is the history of the Jewish people. Jewish communities in places like Russia, Poland and Ukraine lived through long periods of persecution, anti-Jewish laws, expulsions and oppression. Jews also suffered under various empires and societies in earlier times.

When a minority is met with hostility again and again by the majority around it, this can change the feelings that belong to words. In this way, goy, which simply means “nation” or “people”, could get associations of distrust and pain from the experience of Jews living under oppression.

Still, we should keep the original Hebrew meaning separate from the meaning the word got in certain situations.

Other Names for Non-Jews

Nochri – Foreigner.

Nochri means “foreigner”, someone from outside. Deuteronomy 17:15 says:

“…you may not set a foreigner (nochri) over you, who is not your brother.” [7] The point is being an outsider.

Arel – Uncircumcised.

Arel means someone who is uncircumcised. In Genesis, the sons of Jacob say:

“We cannot do this … to give our sister to a man who has a foreskin (Orlah); for that would be a disgrace to us.” (Genesis 34:14) [8]

David also speaks about “this uncircumcised Philistine” (1 Samuel 17:26). [9] So arel is about circumcision, not about nationality.

Kuti – The Samaritans

Kuti is a historical name connected to Kuta and the northern Kingdom of Israel. The Bible says that after Assyria conquered the northern kingdom, other peoples were brought to live there. They lived next to the people who stayed, and they kept their own religious customs (2 Kings 17). [10] Later, Jewish tradition used the word Kuti for the Samaritans. This shows again that a name for a group can come from a specific history.

Chasidei Umot Olam – The Righteous Among the Nations

Not all names for non-Jews are negative. A very positive one is chasidei umot olam, “the righteous among the nations”.

Maimonides writes about this in Hilchot Melachim 8:11. [11] A person who accepts the seven commandments of the descendants of Noah and keeps them carefully is one of the righteous among the nations and has a share in the World to Come.

Maimonides also makes an important point about the reason. The person must keep these commandments because G-d gave them and because they were passed on through Moses. This gives a religious framework to a non-Jew who keeps the seven commandments of Bnei Noach.

Ger Toshav

Ger toshav means “resident stranger”. In the classical sources, it is a non-Jew who lives in the Land of Israel and accepts certain duties from the Bnei Noach commandments.

The Talmud discusses the status of a ger toshav in Avodah Zarah 64b. It asks: “Who is a ger toshav?” and says, among other things, that he is a person who has accepted not to serve idols. [12] Ramban’s commentary on Exodus 20:10 also speaks about the meaning of ger toshav. [13] Maimonides, Hilchot Avodah Zarah 10:6, says that today a person is not accepted as a ger toshav. [14]

So this word is not a general name for every non-Jew today. It is a specific legal status in classical Jewish law.

Ger – The Convert

Ger has another meaning. When we talk about conversion, a ger is a non-Jew who becomes Jewish according to the laws of the Torah. He is also called a ger tzedek.

This is different from a ger toshav. A ger toshav is a non-Jew with a certain legal status. A ger tzedek is someone who has become Jewish. The two should not be mixed up.

Akum – Censorship of the Talmud

Akum is an interesting word in the history of the Talmud text. It is short for Oved Kochavim u’Mazalot, which means someone who worships stars and constellations. It is used to mean “idolater”.

According to this explanation, after copies of the Talmud were burned in Italy in 1553, there were conditions for printing the Talmud again. Catholic censors said they did not like passages with the word goy, because they thought some passages spoke about Christians. So in various places, goy was replaced by akum.

This means the history of the text can be more complicated than what we read in a modern printed edition. No separate source was given for this historical claim, so none is added here.

Why Are Older Manuscripts Important?

Sometimes an old text exists in several versions, and the differences between manuscripts can matter. For the Talmud, there is the work Diḳduḳei Soferim by Rabbinovicz. It compares different manuscripts with the usual printed editions. [15]

The goal is to see which readings appear in which manuscripts and editions. So we should be careful about drawing conclusions about the original wording of a Talmud passage from only one printed edition.

What Does This Mean for Bnei Noach?

All these words lead to one question: how do we describe someone who is not Jewish but wants to follow the universal message of the Torah?

Jewish tradition answers with the idea of Bnei Noach, the children of Noah. This includes the seven commandments for the children of Noah. A person who follows this path can be called a Ben Noach, or, under the conditions of Maimonides, a chasid umot olam.

In this approach, Noahism is not a new religion. The basic idea is:

It is not a matter of feelings or self-identification. In Jewish law, the word “Jew” has a specific meaning. So a Ben Noach does not need to see himself as Jewish. He follows the universal message that Jewish tradition connects with the descendants of Noah.

Un messaggio universale

The idea of Bnei Noach shows how Jewish tradition speaks about the responsibility of all humanity, not only of the Jewish people.

The names goy, nochri, arel, Kuti, ger toshav, ger e chasidei umot olam each have their own meaning:

It is not correct to translate all these words as simply “non-Jew”. Context matters. When we read each word in its own context, we get a much clearer picture.

By Rabbi Tuvia Serber

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Fonti e note

  1. [1] Genesis 12:2
  2. [2] Deuteronomy 4:7–8
  3. [3] Mishnah, Avodah Zarah 1:1
  4. [4] Rashi on Avodah Zarah (reason for the rule about business with non-Jews)
  5. [5] Mishnah, Avodah Zarah 2:2
  6. [6] Rashi on the same passage (danger of a razor)
  7. [7] Deuteronomy 17:15
  8. [8] Genesis 34:14
  9. [9] 1 Samuel 17:26
  10. [10] 2 Kings 17:24
  11. [11] Maimonides, Mishneh Torah, Hilchot Melachim 8:11
  12. [12] Talmud, Avodah Zarah 64b
  13. [13] Ramban, commentary on Exodus 20:10
  14. [14] Maimonides, Mishneh Torah, Hilchot Avodah Zarah 10:6
  15. [15] Diḳduḳei Soferim by Rabbinovicz

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